Punctuation marks

Punctuation means putting in points and stops in writing.

. full stop is placed at the end of a sentence, and in abbreviations.
e.g. He got his B.A. degree.

, comma It is used -
- to separate words in a list.
e.g. coffee, milk, rice, biscuits, etc.
- to separate phrases or clauses.
e.g. If you don’t speak, I shall go away.
- to separate a question from the rest of the sentence.
e.g. It’s very nice, isn’t it?
before or after ‘he said’ in a conversation.
e.g. “Nothing will happen to me”, he said.

; semi colon is used to separate parts of a sentence that already contains commas.
e.g. She was firm in her stand; she would act on it, whenever she wanted to.

? question mark is used at the end of a direct question.
e.g. Where is the bag?
Is he going?

! exclamation mark occurs at the end of a sentence expressing surprise, joy, anger, shock, etc.
e.g. That’s great!
Oh, God!

’ apostrophe is used to show that a thing or person belongs to somebody.
e.g. my sister’s car
students’ corner
It is also used in short forms, to indicate that letters or figures have been omitted.
e.g. I’m (I am )
They’d (they had, they would)

“ ” quotation marks are used to enclose words in direct speech
e.g. “Why were you absent?” he asked.
”I had gone to Chennai”, she said.

Homonym

Homonym is a word that sounds the same as another but is different in meaning.

air - heir, allowed - aloud, ate - eight, bad - bade, bail - bale, ball - bawl, bare - bear, beach - beech, bean - been, beat - beet, bell - belle, birth - berth, blue - blew, boar - bore, board - bored, bow - bough, boy - buoy, brake - break, buy - by/bye, ceiling - sealing, cell - sell, cent - sent, cheap - cheep, check - cheque, coarse - course, dear - deer, die - dye, ewe - you, fair - fare, feat - feet, find - fined, flea - flee, flew - flu, flour - flower, fool - full, fore - four, foul - fowl, fur - fir, gait - gate, groan - grown, hair - hare, hall - haul, heal - heel, hear - here, heard - herd, higher - hire, him - hymn, hole - whole, hour - our, idle - idol, key - quay, knew - new, knight - night, knot - not, knows - nose, lain - lane, lead - led, leak - leek, lessen - lesson, loan - lone, made - maid, mail - male, main - mane, mare - mayor, meat - meet, medal - meddle, missed - mist, muscle - mussel, none - nun, oar - ore, one - won, pail - pale, pain - pane, pair - pear, peace - piece, peal - peel, plain - plane, pore - pour, practice - practise, praise - prays, pray - prey, principal - principle, profit - prophet, rain - reign, rap - wrap, read - reed, read - red, right - write, ring - wring, road - rode, role - roll, root - route, rose - rows, sale - sail, scene - seen, sea - see, seam - seem, sew - sow, sight - site, soar - sore, sole - soul, son - sun, soot - suit, stair - stare, stake - steak, steal - steel, stile - style, suite - sweet, tail - tale, tear - tier, their - there, threw - through, throne - thrown, tide - tied, to - two, told - tolled, vain - vein, vale - veil, waist - waste, wait - weight, weak - week, wood - would, yoke - yolk, yore - your.

Collective nouns

Collective nouns are words used to define a group of objects. Here "objects" can be people, animals, emotions, inanimate things, concepts, or other things.

Subjects and their collective terms are given below.

ants

• An army of ants
• A bike of ants
• A colony of ants
• A swarm of ants

antelope

• A cluster of antelope
• A herd of antelope
• A tribe of antelope

apes

• A shrewdness of apes
• A troop of apes

asses (roped)

• A coffle of asses

asses (driven)

• A drove of asses

asses

• A herd of asses
• A pace of asses

auks (on land)

• A colony of auks

auks (at sea)

• A flock of auks

auks (on water)

• A raft of auks

baboons

• A flange of baboons
• A congress of baboons
• A troop of baboons
• A rumpus of baboons

bacterium

• A culture of bacteria

badgers

• A colony of badgers
• A cete of badgers

bats

• A cloud of bats
• A colony of bats

bears

• A sloth of bears

beavers

• A colony of beavers

bees

• A hive of bee
• A swarm of bees

birds

• A flock of birds

birds (in an aviary)

• A volery of birds

bitterns

• A siege of bitterns

blackfish

• A grind of blackfish

boars

• A singular of boars
  

boars (wild, 12 or more)

• A sounder of wild boars

buffalo

• A gang, herd, or obstinacy of buffalo

bullfinches

• A bellowing of bullfinches

bullocks

• A drove of bullocks

bursars

• A cheat of bursars

butterflies

• A rabble of butterflies

capons

• A mews of capons

caribou

• A herd of caribou

cats

• A clowder of cats
• A clutter (or cluster) of cats
• A glaring of cats

caterpillars

• An army of caterpillars

cattle

• A herd of cattle

chickens

• A brood of chickens

choughs

• A chattering of choughs

civil servants

• A file of civil servants

colts

• A rag of colts
• A rake of colts

conies

• A bury of conies

coots

• A covert of coots

cormorants

• A flight of cormorants

courtiers

• A threat of courtiers

coyotes

• A pack of coyote

cranes

• A sedge of cranes

crocodiles

• A bask of crocodiles

crows

• A hover of crows
• A murder of crows

deer

• A bunch of deer
• A mob of deer

dogs

• A kennel of dogs

dogfish

• A troop of dogfish

dolphins

• A school of dolphins
• A team of dolphins

dotterel

• A trip of dotterel

doves

• A flight of doves

ducks (on water)

• A bunch of ducks
• A paddling of ducks
• A raft of ducks

ducks

• A safe of ducks

ducks (in flight)

• A skein of ducks
• A string of ducks
• A team of ducks

elephants

• A herd of elephants
• A parade of elephants

elk

• A gang of elk

ferrets

• A busyness of ferrets

finches

• A charm of finches

fish

• A shoal of fish
• A school of fish

fish (drawn, netted or driven)

• A draft of fish

fish (caught or cooked)

• A mess of fish

flamingoes

• A stand of flamingoes

flies

• A swarm of flies

foxes

• A skulk of foxes

gingers

• A flush of gingers

geese (on land)

• A gaggle of geese

geese (in flight)

• A skein of geese

gnats

• A cloud of gnats
• A ghost of gnats

goats

• A trip of goats

goldfish

• A troubling of goldfish
• A glint of goldfish

gorillas

• A band of gorillas

grouse

• A pack of grouse

hares

• A down of hares
• A mute of hares

hedgehogs

• An array of hedgehogs

herons

• A siege of herons

hippopotamuses

• A bloat of hippopotamuses

horses

• A drove of horses
• A string of horses

hounds

• A cry of hounds
• A pack of hounds

impediments

• A vagary of impediments

insects

• a swarm of insects

jays

• A party of jays
• A scold of jays
• A band of jays

jellyfish

• A smack of jellyfish

jugglers

• A never thriving of jugglers

kites (birds)

• A brood of kites
• An eyrie of kites
• A roost of kites
• A kettle of kites
• A stooping of kites
• A soar of kites
• A string of kites

kittens (cats)

• A kindle of kittens
• A smattering of kittens

kittens (rabbits)

• A wrack of kittens

knights

• A rout of knights
• A banner of knights

ladies

• A bevy of ladies

lambs

• A fall of lambs

lapwings

• A desert of lapwings
• A deceit of lapwings

larks

• An ascension of larks
• An exaltation of larks

leopards

• A leap of leopards
• A spot of leopards

lions

• A pride of lions

locusts

• A plague of locusts

lorries

• A convoy of lorries

magpies

• A steal of magpies
• A tiding(s) of magpies

mallards

• A sord of mallards
• A lute of mallards

martens

• A richness of martens

matrons

• A riches of matrons

moles

• A labour of moles
• A company of moles
• A movement of moles

monitors

• A bank of monitors

monks

• An abomination of monks

monkeys

• A circus of monkeys
• A tribe of monkeys
• A troop of monkeys
• A mission of monkeys

mourners

• A cortege of mourners

mosquitoes

• A scourge of mosquitoes

mice

• A mischief of mice

mules

• A barren of mules
• A rake of mules

natives

• A tribe of natives

nightingales

• A watch of nightingales

otters

• A bevy of otters
• A romp of otters

owls

• A parliament of owls
• A stare of owls

oxen

• A team of oxen
• A span of oxen

oysters (young)

• A set of young oysters

parrots

• A pandemonium of parrots
• A company of parrots

partridges

• A covey of partridges

peacocks

• A pride of peacocks
• A muster of peacocks
• An ostentation of peacocks

pekingese

• A pomp of Pekingese

penguins

• A parcel of penguins
• A rookery of penguins
• A creche of penguins
• A huddle of penguins
• A colony of penguins

performers

• A troupe of performers

pheasants

• A covey of pheasants
• A bouquet of pheasants

physicians

• A college of physicians

platypi

• An implausibility of platypi

pigs

• A drove of pigs
• A fleet of pigs
• A herd of pigs
• A sounder of pigs

pigeons

• A kit of pigeons
• A loft of pigeons

plovers

• A congregation of plovers

polar bears

• An aurora of polar bears

polecats

• A chine of polecats

ponies

• A string of ponies

porpoises

• A school of porpoises
• A turmoil of porpoises

possum

• A passel of possum

quail

• A covey of quail

raccoons

• A gaze of raccoons

rats

• A pack of rats
• A rabble of rats

ravens

• An unkindness of ravens
• A conspiracy of ravens

rhinoceroses

• A crash of rhinoceroses

roes

• A bevy of roes

rooks

• A building of rooks
• A clamour of rooks
• A parliament of rooks

ruffs

• A hill of ruffs

salmon

• A run of salmon
• A bind of salmon

sandpipers

• A fling of sandpipers

satellites

• A constellation of satellites

sea fowl

• A cloud of sea fowl

seagulls

• A flock of seagulls

seals

• A spring of seals
• A pod of seals
• A plum of seals

servants

• An obeisance of servants

sharks

• A shiver of sharks

sheep

• A flock of sheep

show dogs

• A bench of show dogs

skanks

• A swathe of skanks

snails

• A rout of snails

snipe

• A walk of snipe
• A wisp of snipe

sparrows

• A ubiquity of sparrows
• A quarrel of sparrows
• A host of sparrows

spiders

• A clutter of spiders
• A cluster of spiders

squirrels

• A dray of squirrels

staples

• A troop of staples

stick insects

• A bushel of stick insects

storks

• A muster of storks
• A phalanx of storks

swallows

• A flight of swallows
• A gulp of swallows

swans (flying)

• A wedge of swans

swans

• A gaggle of swans
• A whiteness of swans
• A bevy of swans
• A bank of swans

swine

• A sounder of swine
• A drift of swine

teal

• A spring of teal
• A diving of teal

thrushes

• A mutation of thrushes

tigers

• A streak of tigers
• An ambush of tigers

toads

• A knot of toads

tourists

• A crowd of tourists

trout

• A hover of trout

turkeys

• A flock of turkeys
• A rafter of turkeys
• A raffle of turkeys

turtles

• A turn of turtles
• A bale of turtles

turtledoves

• A pitying of turtledoves

vampires

• A house of vampires

vipers

• A nest of vipers

walruses

• A herd of walruses

waterfowl

• A plump of waterfowl
• A knob of waterfowl

weasels

• A sneak of weasels

whales

• A school of whales
• A herd of whales
• A pod of whales
• A gam of whales

widgeon

• A coil of widgeon

witches

• A coven of witches

wolves

• A pack of wolves
• A rout of wolves

woodpeckers

• A descent of woodpeckers

worms

• A clew of worms

yeomen

• A fellowship of yeomen

zebra

• A herd of zebra
• A dazzle of zebra

zombie

• A horde of zombies
• A plague of zombies

Characters used in SMS with their meanings

• & - and
  
• 0 - nothing
  
• 2 - two, to, too
  
• 2DAY - today
  
• A - a / an
  
• B - be
  
• B4 - before
  
• BC - because
  
• BF - boyfriend
  
• BK - back
  
• BRO - brother
  
• BT - but
  
• C - see
  
• D8 - date
  
• DNR - dinner
  
• EZ - easy
  
• F8 - fate
  
• GF - girlfriend
  
• GR8 - great
  
• HOLS - holidays
  
• HV - have
  
• I - I, it
  
• Its - it is
  
• KDS - kids
  
• L8 - late
  
• L8R - later
  
• M8 - mate
  
• NE1 - anyone
  
• PLS - please
  
• PS - parents
  
• QT - cutie
  
• R - are
  
• SIS - sister
  
• SMMR - summer
  
• U - you
  
• WR - were
  
• A3 - anyplace, anytime, anywhere
  
• ASAP - as soon as possible
  
• B4N - Bye for now
  
• BAU - business as usual
  
• BRB - I'll be right back.
  
• BTW - by the way
  
• CUL - see you later
  
• CWOT - complete waste of time
  
• FTF - face to face
  
• FYI - for your information
  
• GMTA - great minds think alike
  
• HAND - have a nice day
  
• HRU - how are you
  
• ICBW - it could be worse
  
• IDTS - I don't think so
  
• IMHO - in my humble opinion
  
• IYKWIM - if you know what I mean
  
• JK - just kidding
  
• KOTC - kiss on the cheek
  
• LOL - laughing out loud
  
• LSKOL - long slow kiss on the lips
  
• LTNS - long time no see
  
• Luv U - I love you.
  
• Luv U2 - I love you too.
  
• MON - the middle of nowhere
  
• MTE - my thoughts exactly
  
• MU - I miss you.
  
• MUSM - I miss you so much.
  
• NP - no problem
  
• OIC - oh, I see
  
• PC&QT - peace and quiet
  
• PCM - please call me
  
• ROTFL - rolling on the floor laughing
  
• RUOK - are you ok?
  
• THNQ - thank you
  
• U4E - you forever
  
• UROK - you are okay
  
• WUCIWUG - what you see is what you get
  
• WYSIWYG - what you see is what you get
  
• XLNT - excellent
  
• :-) smiling
  
• :-* kiss
  
• :-)) very happy
  
• :-0 shocked
  
• :") blushing
  
• <:3 )~ mouse
  
• :’-) tears of laughter
  
• :-P stick tongue out
  
• :-(*) you make me sick
  
• x-( you are mad
  
• :-" whistling
  
• ;-) wink
  
• :-@ screaming
• O:-) saintly

English conversation at the Airport

Buying a ticket:

• I'd like to reserve a seat to Delhi.
• Will that be one way or round trip (Single or return journey)?
• How much is a round trip ticket?
• It's Rs 20,000/-. Will you pay cash, by cheque (check) or by credit card?
• Here's my Visa Card. Can I get a window seat please? I don’t want an aisle seat.
• You can choose your seat when you check in.
  

Checking In:

• Can I see your ticket and passport, please?
• Here they are. Can I get a window seat?
• Yes, that's no problem. You're in seat 15A.
• Thanks. Where do I go next?
• Go to Gate D5.

On the aircraft(Airplane / aeroplane):

• Would you like something to drink?
• Could I have a cup of coffee?
• Here you are. Please fill out this form before the plane lands.
• What is this form for?
• It's a Customs and Immigration form. You will use that in the airport before you can enter the country.
  

The Arrival:

• Thank you for flying Air India!
• I had a good trip. Thanks for your help.
• It was our pleasure and we hope to see you again.

Getting through Customs:

• Do you have anything to declare?
• I just have a packet of cigarette to be given to my friend as a gift.
• That's fine. Have a nice stay.
• Getting your luggage:
• At which carrousel (a conveyer belt that carries luggage to be claimed by air travelers) will my luggage be?
• At number 6, over there.
• Great! I'll get a cart right away.
• Be sure you have your luggage ticket.
• Yes, it's right here attached to my plane ticket.

Going through Immigration:

• What's in the small bag?
• I have some books.
• Could you open it please?
• Sure.
• Okay, you can go.

Getting out:

• Excuse me, where can I get a taxi?
• You can get it just outside.
• Thank you!

Expressing shock, disbelief and something bad

Shock:

• I was shocked to hear…
• The news came as a complete shock.
• We're all in complete shock.
• Everyone's reeling from the shock of…
• It happened out of the blue.
• Who could have predicted it?
• I (just) can't get over …
• We were completely taken aback by…
• I was just stunned by…
  

Disbelief:

• I just can't believe…
• It's unbelievable.
• I just can't imagine…
• Words can't describe… (How I feel about / the terrible devastation etc)
• There's no way it could have happened.
  

Saying how bad something is:

• It's so awful.
• It's terrible.
• What a terrible news.
• It's a tragedy.
• It's a catastrophe.
• This is the worst thing that could have happened.

TOEFL

The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) is used to measure how well students can speak, write and communicate in English. It is most commonly used by American colleges to determine whether or not students from other countries have sufficient English language skills to succeed in their programs.

The test comes in two formats – online and in print – depending on the testing agency where the test is taken. During the test, students are expected to complete separate sections on reading, speaking, listening, and writing. This varies from other standardized tests in that most others only judge students on two or three of the four areas. Fortunately though, on the TOEFL, one piece of information may be used on more than one section. For example, a student might be able to read a short story, write a paper on what it was about, and then give a verbal explanation and answer questions from the instructor.

As with all the other common standardized tests, many companies offer prep books and software to help students prepare for the TOEFL. Students may also be able to take TOEFL prep courses or work with private tutors, although these services can be expensive. Fortunately, students who register to take the TOEFL are given access to a free practice test to take before the real thing. The practice exam simulates the different types of questions you’ll encounter on the real test, so you’ll be better prepared for the actual exam.

With the TOELF test, students are able to prove they can complete the task at hand and learn effectively in a completely English-speaking environment, even if they botch the interview process.

The test is also used by employers in some cases when they consider using foreign employees or consultants in areas that require English be spoken. For example, if you’re a non-native speaker looking for work in a customer service based position that requires you to speak English; you may be required to take the TOEFL test. Some companies test foreign employees on their ability to work in English-speaking countries before hiring them, while others test current employees before promotions and transfers.

Contractions

• Isn’t - Is not
  
• Aren’t - Are not
  
• Weren’t - Were not
  
• Wasn’t - Was not
  
• They’re - They are
  
• It’s - It is
  
• That’s - That is
  
• Can’t - Can not
  
• Would’ve - Would have
  
• Should’ve - Should have
  
• Wouldn’t - Would not
  
• Shouldn’t - Should not
  
• Didn’t - Did not
  
• Doesn’t - Does not
  
• He’d - He had
  
• She’d - She had
  
• He’ll - He will
  
• She’ll - She will
  
• How’d - How did
  
• How’ll - How will
  
• I’m - I am
  
• I’ll - I will
  
• I’d - I would
  
• I’m - I am
  
• Ain’t - Am not